Terms Relating to Lie Detectors Explained – Letter Q and R
Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
A single-issue polygraph technique developed and advocated by James
Matte which extends the method devised by Cleve Backster. This technique
has four “tracks:” primary track, secondary track, inside track, and outside track.
The primary and secondary tracks consist of pairings of two relevant questions
with two non-current exclusive probable-lie comparison questions. The inside
track contains two questions, one relating to the examinee’s concern about a
false positive error, and the other regarding the examinee’s hope for a false
negative error. Independent research has to date failed to support the
construct of the inside track (See Nelson & Cushman, 2011). The questions
used in the outside track are similar to questions historically referred to as
symptomatic questions. A 7-position scoring system is used for analysis. For a
full explanation, see Matte (1996). Formerly known as the Quadri-Zone
Technique.
Quinque-Track Zone Comparison Technique
A multiple-issue test format based on the principles of the Quadri-Track
Zone Comparison Technique by James Matte. Relevant areas in this format
include direct involvement, indirect involvement, and concealed knowledge. A
7-position scoring system is used. See: Matte (1996). Empirical support for
this technique has not yet been published.
Quadri-Zone Comparison Technique
Superceded name for the Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
developed by James Matte. See Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique.
R-wave peak to carotid incisura (RWPCI)
A cardiac response measured by the interval between the peak of the Rwave
on an electrocardiograph (indicating ventricular contracture) and the
arrival of the pulse waveform at the carotid incisura in the neck. It has been
investigated as a possible additional measure of sympathetic nervous system
arousal in the PDD setting.
Radial Artery
Major artery in the forearm and wrist along with the ulna artery, and one
of the alternate PDD recording sites for cardiovascular activity using the blood
pressure cuff.
Random Assignment
Research strategy whereby each selected subject is placed in a given
group by chance. This can be accomplished through random numbers tables,
coin flips, or other chance methods. Random assignment is one way of
assuring that experimental effects are not the result of a systematic error in
groupings of subjects. Random assignment is not the same as random
selection, which addresses which subjects will participate in the study. Most
laboratory studies of PDD randomly assign subjects into programmed guilt or
programmed innocence.
Random Selection
Method in research for extracting samples from a population where each
individual has an equal opportunity for selection, and the selection of a subject
has no influence on the selection of other subjects. Random selection is used
to avoid the systematic error that can occur from other strategies. Random
selection is not the same as random assignment, which addresses to which
group the selected subjects will be placed. In practice, true random selection
from the larger population is difficult to accomplish in PDD research. Either
subjects are drawn from subgroups, such as military recruits or college
students, or they self-select in proportions that do not well represent the larger
population, such as through newspaper recruitments.
Rank Order Analysis
Any of the methods of PDD scoring that entail the assignment of ranks
to response intensities within channel. Rank order analysis methods for the
CQT include the Horizontal Scoring System and the Rank Order Scoring
System. First published report for ranking of responses was for the Guilty
Knowledge Test in the 1950s. See: Gordon & Cochetti (1987); Honts &
Driscoll; (1987); Krapohl, Dutton & Ryan (2001); Lykken (1959); Ohnishi,
Matsuno, Arasuna & Suzuki (1976).
Rationalization
Self deception. In the psychoanalytic model, rationalization is a psychic
defense mechanism in which one’s true motives or behaviors that are
threatening to the psyche are reinterpreted to be other motives that are more
acceptable. For example, some child molesters reconcile their self-image and
their criminal sexual behavior by adopting the belief that they are only
providing love and affection for their victims, or that they are merely satisfying
the curiosity of the children. Similarly, isolated reports from criminal
interrogations reveal that some murderers justify their killings in the most
creative manner, including blaming the weapon. PDD examiners routinely
watch for indications of rationalization during the pretest interview in order to
prevent a false negative through faulty test questions that empower the selfdeceit.
No research has evaluated the effects of rationalization on PDD
efficiency.
Reaction Tracing
Section of a physiologic tracing in which an arousal is apparent.
Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC)
Also known as the Relative Operating Characteristics, it is a graphical
plot of the sensitivity, or true positive rate (true deceivers correctly identified),
- false positive rate (percent of non-deceivers falsely implicated), for a given
separation of the distribution of all possible scores for all possible choices of
threshold. It is a psychophysical conceptual model for detection efficiency
based on signal detection theory (SDT). The ROC characterizes the sensitivity of
the decision criteria versus the specificity, and is useful to predict false positive
and false negative rates across all levels of a criterion (cutting score, in PDD).
It is an extension of work from the 1940s regarding the ability of radar
operators to discriminate radar signals of friendly aircraft from those of enemy
aircraft or noise. See: Swets (1995); Swets, Dawes & Monahan (2000).
Recognition Test
Polygraph techniques can be divided into two major categories,
knowledge-based tests, also called recognition tests, and deception based tests.
The recognition test family of PDD techniques includes; peak of tension tests,
acquaintance tests and concealed information tests. They attempt to
determine if the examinee has knowledge only available to persons directly
involved in an incident of concern. The Concealed Information Tests (CIT)
variant of these tests has been referred to as the Guilty Knowledge Tests. In a
CIT used for a murder case, the polygraph examiner might assess whether or
not the examinee reacts physiologically to the murder weapon as compared to a
series of possible weapons which investigators are certain were not used in the
crime. Because this approach depends upon the existence of a known crime or
incident facts that remain unknown to the innocent suspect, the recognition
test paradigm is not suited for use as a screening test. See: Krapohl,
McCloughan & Senter (2006); Lykken (1959); Osugi (2011).
Recovery half-time
Interval between response onset and the return of the response to onehalf
of the maximum amplitude of the phasic response. Recovery half-time has
been investigated as a diagnostic feature with electrodermal data using
automated analysis. See: Kircher & Raskin (1988).
Recovery Time
Period between maximum amplitude of a phasic response and the return
to a predetermined level.
Rectilinear Tracing
Tracing produced by an instrument that records linearly correct across
time. Rectilinear tracings are produced by laboratory instrumentation and
computer polygraphs, but not analog field polygraphs used in the practice of
PDD. For contrast, see curvilinear.
Red Zone
In the Backster framework, it is a 20-to-35 seconds block of polygraph
chart time initiated by a relevant question having a unique psychological
focusing appeal to the guilty (deceptive) examinees. One of the three primary
zones in the Zone Comparison Technique (red, green, black).
Regression Analysis
Method for mathematically modeling a relationship, and is used in
prediction and description. Unknown values for the dependent values can be
estimated by what is known about the corresponding independent variables.
Independent and dependent variables must be at least interval scale.
Regression analysis comes in various forms and is very useful to parse out the
contributions individual variables make to an outcome. Multivariate and
univariate regression are distinguished by the number of independent
variables. At least one PDD algorithm uses a form of regression analysis.
Reid, John
One of the first modern PDD examiners, Reid developed many
techniques still in use today. Reid is credited with bringing the probable-lie
comparison question into common practice in the field. He also developed the
Reid Technique, which includes the Yes Test and the Guilt Complex Test. Reid
helped bring about the first state licensure for PDD practitioners in Illinois in
- Reid instructed hundreds of students at his school and offered the first
accredited Masters program in PDD. The Reid Technique, which emphasizes
global evaluation, is used by some PDD examiners today.
Relevant/Irrelevant (RI) Technique
Family of polygraph test formats in which traditional lie comparison
questions are not employed. While originally used in criminal testing, RI tests
currently are more often found in multiple-issue screening applications. The RI
test can trace its roots to word association tests employed in the early 1900s,
and these word tests were later used occasionally during the monitoring of
electrodermal activity. The RI was used extensively by pioneers John Larson
and Leonarde Keeler in the 1920s through the 1940s, and it is still in use
today. Variants include the NSA RI, which is used in multiple-issue screening,
and the Modified Relevant/Irrelevant (MRI), used in criminal testing. Limited
empirical support exists for RI testing.
Relevant Issue Gravity (RIG)
A theory proposed by Avital Ginton (2009). The force induced by
aggregation of qualities that the relevant issue posses which attracts and
bounds the examinee’s attention to the relevant issue is termed Relevant Issue
Gravity (RIG). It is manifested in preoccupation of the examinee’s mind with the
relevant issue and its derivatives and in difficulties to divert attention to other
topics or issues. It is postulated in the RIG strength theory that the RIG
strength for the guilty examinees on average is stronger than the RIG strength
for the truth-tellers. Therefore it is harder to divert the attention of the guilty
examinee to the comparison question and relatively easier to do that with the
truth-tellers. This is compatible with the basic decision rule of the CQT, namely
a stronger reactions to comparison questions compared to the reactions to the
relevant questions indicates a relatively weak RIG strength which means a non
guilty examinee. And of course the opposite outcome indicates a relatively
strong RIG which means a guilty examinee. See: Ginton (2009).
Relevant Question
A question that deals with the target issue of concern to the
investigation. In addition to “did you do it” types of questions, relevant
questions also include evidence-connecting and “do you know who” questions.
Strong relevant questions address the “did you do it” type of questions, while
moderate-strength relevant questions address evidence connecting and prior
knowledge, such as participation in planning, providing help the perpetrators,
or knowing the identity of the perpetrators. Moderate-strength relevant
questions also address the examinee’s alibi or place him at the scene of the
crime. The term relevant question is not appropriate for Peak of Tension or
Concealed Information Tests. Rather, terms such as key and critical item are
used in these formats. Relevant questions are sometimes called pertinent
questions or, more informally, hot questions.
Reliability
Stability or consistency of measurement. Reliability studies in PDD
often examine the rate of decision agreement among examiners on polygraph
test charts. Interrater (between rater) reliability denotes agreement among
examiners, whereas intrarater (within rater) agreement (test-retest reliability)
pertains to an examiner agreement with his or her own decisions when
evaluating the charts on different occasions. Reliability is not the same as
validity, which means accuracy. A technique cannot be more valid than it is
reliable, since reliability constrains validity. However, a technique can have
high agreement without high accuracy, though the reverse is not true.
Relief tracing
Section of a physiologic tracing in which a recovery from an arousal is
apparent.
Resistance
Degree to which a material hinders the flow of electricity. Skin
resistance is one of the measures used in conventional polygraphs. Resistance
and conductance are reciprocals of one another. See: Handler (2010).
Resonance Control
Feature on some older analog polygraphs that allowed the operator to
regulate the diameter of the pneumatic line of the cardiograph between the
internal bellows and the external coupling. Its effect was to change the
amplitude of the pulse wave tracing.
Respiration
One of the standard physiological signals in PDD testing. Respiratory
data are generally obtained via a pneumograph transducer placed around the
thorax and abdomen of the test subject. PDD examiners historically evaluated
breathing movement data through a subjective approach that relied on the
presence or absence of various signature patterns indicative of deception.
Since respiration is more readily controlled than other activity recorded with
the polygraph, it is one of the first areas examiners look for indications of
countermeasures. Such indications are paced breathing, holding one’s breath,
very slow breathing, irregularly shaped waveforms, hyperventilation, and
tactical use of deep breaths. In physiology, respiration refers to the movement
of gases across membranes in the lungs, while ventilation is the term used for
the expansion and compression of the chest during breathing. See Handler,
Reicherter, Nelson, & Fausett (2009).
Respiratory Amplitude (RA)
One of several features found in the respiratory pattern. Suppression of
the RA is a reliable indicator of sympathetic nervous system arousal and is one
of the features evaluated in the diagnosis of deception. This principle
presupposes stable respiratory patterns.
Respiratory blood pressure fluctuations (RBPF)
An undulating waveform observed in the cardiograph channel during
PDD testing. During breathing vasoconstrictor neurons are activated in the
inspiratory phase leading to rhythmic vasoconstriction of blood vessels
controlling blood pressure. Increased vasomotor constriction results in
increased blood pressure. Additionally, deep breathing results in negative
pressure in the venae cavae resulting in increased blood flow. Increased blood
flow results in a larger “pre load” (the amount of blood returning to the right
side of the heart) or end diastolic volume which leads to increased blood
pressure. Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) results in increased heart rate
during the inspiration cycle. Increased heart rate results in increased cardiac
output which, in turn, results in increased blood pressure. When an examinee
engages in a deliberate attempt to control his or her breathing one can expect
to see an exacerbation of any cyclic waveform in the cardiovascular channel.
The synchronous rise and fall of the relative blood pressure is quite possibly a
result of any combination of these physiological factors. See Handler &
Reicherter (2008).
Respiratory Cycle Time (RCT)
One of several diagnostic features found in the respiratory pattern. The
RCT is calculated by measuring the time or linear chart distance between two
inspiratory maximums, divided by the same measure of two inspiratory peaks
after the subject’s vocal response. Lower ratios indicate longer respiration
cycle time after stimulus presentation and, therefore, sympathetic nervous
system arousal. This principle presupposes stable respiratory patterns.
Respiration Line Length (RLL)
Feature in a respiration tracing that changes during arousal. It is a
linear measure of the respiration waveform over a specified period time. RLLs
are inversely related to autonomic nervous system activation. This is because
the typical breathing response to stimulation or orientation is a suppression in
the rate and amplitude of respiration. It was first reported in the PDD
literature by Dr. Howard Timm, and several studies have since supported the
use of this measure in deception tests. The use of RLL as a deception criterion
presupposes stable respiratory patterns. See: Timm (1982).
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA)
Variations in heartbeat directly related to respiration; slower during
inspiration and faster during expiration.
Rise Time
Period between the start of a response to its greatest amplitude.
Response Onset Window
Beginning of the period after question onset in which physiological
responses are considered for analysis and scoring.
Rusichi Barier-14
Polygraph manufactured in Russia.
