Terms Relating to Lie Detectors Explained – Letter I
Identifi
Product name for a polygraph algorithm developed by Keith Hedges.
Inbau, Fred
Inbau is most known in the polygraph community for his collaboration
with polygraph pioneer John Reid. Though a lawyer, he joined the new
established Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory in Chicago in 1933 to pursue
his interest in forensic science, and stayed with the lab as director when it was
assumed by the Chicago Police Department. He left to be a trial lawyer in
1941, and joined the faculty of Northwestern University School of Law in 1945.
Inbau was a prolific writer, and his book Criminal Interrogation and Confessions
is considered a classic.
Intoxicated Drivers on Probation (IDOP)
A program which used the polygraph to verify compliance with the
conditions of probation for convicted drunk drivers. As with post-conviction
sex offender testing (PCSOT) and domestic violence offender testing (DVOT), it
is designed to contribute to community safety by detecting and discouraging
behaviors that pose a threat to the public by individuals with a demonstrated
propensity to engage in certain criminal acts.
Imagery
The use of visualization to experience memories or fantasies. Imagery
has been shown to produce profound physiologic responses, and because it
can be performed covertly by an examinee, it is a concern to PDD examiners as
a possible countermeasure. Imagery is one form of dissociation.
Impedance Cardiogram (ICG)
Specialized cardiogram by which the timing and stroke volume of the
heart can be derived. Though not currently used in PDD, it has been shown to
provide a gauge of sympathetic arousal when used in tandem with the ECG.
See Harrell & Clark (1985).
Incisura
A notch or indentation on any form. See dicrotic notch.
Inclusive (inclusionary, non-exclusionary) comparison question
Comparison question that potentially encompasses the activity of
interest in the relevant questions. While contemporary practice tends to favor
exclusionary comparison questions, no research has not found them to
increase decision accuracy over inclusive comparison questions, and most
studies support the inclusive comparison question. See: Amsel (1999);
Podlesny & Raskin (1978); Horvath (1988); Horvath & Palmatier (2008).
Incomplete
PDD outcome used in some sectors that indicates that testing was
terminated before sufficient physiological information was collected. This may
be due to the sudden onset of health problems, extreme emotional distress, or
the examinee’s unwillingness or inability to remain for further testing. It may
also signify that the examinee provided information after initial testing that
necessitated subsequent testing, but it was not completed due to examinee
fatigue, time limits, or equipment problems. A PDD decision of incomplete
implies that testing may continue at a future date.
Inconclusive
PDD outcome where testing was completed, but neither deception nor
truthfulness can be diagnosed because the physiological data are inconsistent,
inadequate, artifacted, or contaminated. There is disagreement whether an
inconclusive outcome should be considered an error when computing validity
of PDD. Some argue that examinees are either truthful or deceptive, but never
inconclusive; therefore, such an outcome is necessarily in error. Conversely, in
the forensic sciences it has been asserted that the inconclusive outcome is
used to assess utility, but not validity, because samples in forensic disciplines
are often inadequate, or contaminated. For example, fingerprint data is more
frequently inadequate than adequate, though fingerprint analysis is considered
highly accurate in spite of the relatively modest percentage of cases that it can
render a positive identification. Because of this controversy, PDD validity
studies report accuracies both with and without inconclusive results and
should report inconclusive rates for each category of test subject. In practice,
inconclusive outcomes are the default results when the criteria for deception or
not-deception decisions are not satisfied and are a matter of the decision
thresholds employed. Alternate term is indefinite, or no opinion.
indefinite
See inconclusive.
Independent Variable
The variable manipulated by the experimenter to determine the effects
on the dependent variable. As an example, if a researcher were interested in
sex differences in PDD validity, the independent variable would be the gender
of examinee and the dependent variable would be the accuracy of the PDD
technique for each sex.
Inex
Computer polygraph manufactured in Russia.
Information Gain
Statistical approach to determine the usefulness of a technique over the
non-use of the technique. In forensic applications, the polygraph has been
shown to provide a significant information gain over unassisted lay judgments
across a wide range of base rates. In screening, only decisions of deception led
to a significant improvement in information gain. See Honts & Schweinle
(2009).
Innervation
Provide nerve supply to.
inside-issue comparison question
Test question used only the Quadri-Track Comparison Technique.
Advocates of the technique state that it is designed to elicit a response from the
truthful examinee concerned about a false positive error. Empirical support is
mixed between advocate and independent research. See: Matte (1996);
Mangan, Armitage & Adams (2008); Nelson & Cushman (2011); Shurany, Stein
& Brand (2009).
Inside-Issue Relevant Question
Test question used only the Quadri-Track Comparison Technique.
Advocates of the technique state that it is designed to elicit a response from the
deceptive examinee hoping for a false negative error. Empirical support is
mixed between advocate and independent research. See: Matte (1996);
Mangan, Armitage & Adams (2008) Nelson & Cushman (2011); Shurany, Stein
& Brand (2009).
Inside Track
One of four tracks in the Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
which include the primary, secondary, and outside tracks. The inside track
employs two questions. One of these questions addresses an examinee’s fear of
a false positive error, and is used as a comparison question. The other
concerns the examinee’s hope of a false negative error, which is treated and
interpreted as a relevant question. Empirical support is mixed between
advocate and independent research. See: Matte (1996); Mangan, Armitage &
Adams (2008); Nelson & Cushman (2011): Shurany, Stein & Brand (2009).
Inspiration (inhalation) / expiration (exhalation) ratio (I/E ratio)
The duration of inhalation compared with that of exhalation. Normally
the ratio is about 1:2 in a resting human and changes during stress. It was
first reported by Benussi in 1914. Changes in the I/E ratio are considered by
some to be a diagnostic criterion in PDD though the phenomenon may be
coincidental with rate change. See: Kircher, Kristjansson, Gardner, & Webb
(2005).
Instant Offense Examination
A form of Post-Conviction Sex Offender Testing, conducted when a subject
is in denial of the offense or of some significant element of the offense for which
he or she was convicted, and is often used to break down the denial barrier.
This is also an examination that can be given when a new allegation has been
made while the subject is on probation or parole. The polygraph is used to
determine whether the allegations are true. Also called a specific issue
examination. See: Cooley-Towel, Pasini-Hill, & Patrick (2000); Dutton, (2000);
English, Pullen, & Jones (1996); Heil, Ahlmeyer, McCullar, & McKee (2000).
Integrated Zone Comparison Technique
The Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (IZCT) was developed in
1987 by Nathan J. Gordon, William Waid, and Philip Cochetti at the Academy
for Scientific Investigative Training. Much of the design of the IZCT was based
on formatting principles from the Backster Zone Comparison Technique
although there are significant differences. Developers of the IZCT allow the
examiner the flexibility to use the same test structure for both single-issue and
multiple-issue cases. The IZCT is unique in that it uses a rank ordering
system of analysis, called the Horizontal Scoring System. Also, unlike other
techniques, the first chart is conducted as a silent answer test, and in the third
chart there is a reversal of the positions of comparison-relevant questions to
relevant-comparisons. See: Gordon, Fleisher, Morsie, Habib, & Salah (2000);
Nelson & Handler (2011).
Integument
Covering of the body (skin). Human skin consists of three primary
layers: epidermis, dermis, and subdermis. It is comprised of a complex set of
organs that provide protective and sense functions. Skin protects the body from
environmental threats such as temperature, chemical, mechanical and
infectious agents by acting as a selective barrier. Skin can aid in the removal of
substances like water and solutes from the bloodstream through the sweat
glands. From a sensory standpoint, skin houses various receptors to provide
afferent information related to touch, pain and temperature See: Handler,
Nelson, Krapohl & Honts (2010).
Intent Question
Question used in polygraph testing to determine whether the examinee
had engaged in an act with criminal intent, rather than merely committed the
act. It is considered the least reliable of all types of relevant questions in PDD
testing and is avoided whenever possible. Some behavioral acts include intent
by their definition, e.g. ‘sexual contact’.
interbeat interval (IBI)
Period between cardiac pulse waves, usually measured from systole to
systole. The IBI has been shown to shorten just after the onset of stress in
most people if a defense response has been found to occur. Contrarily, IBI has
been found to increase initially during an orienting response. IBI and heart
rate are reciprocals of one another.
Inter-Chart Stimulation
Examiner-examinee interaction that takes place in the few minutes
between individual tests. The interaction might include general reminders for
the examinee to answer all questions truthfully (in the case of PLC techniques),
or further emphasizing the comparison questions. Some research suggests
that inter-chart stimulation may improve the validity of polygraphy, though it
remains a very controversial procedure. See: Abrams (1999); Honts (1999;
2000); Matte (2000).
International 10-20 system
Standard guide to electrode placement on the scalp for recording EEG
activity. The system uses letters and numbers to indicate coordinates on the
scalp. The P300 brain wave, used in concealed information paradigms, is
recorded maximally at site Pz.
Introductory Test
Alternate term for a stimulation test. See stimulation test.
Investigative Examination
A polygraph examination which is intended to supplement and/or assist
an investigation and for which the examiner has not been informed and does
not reasonably believe that the results of the examination will be tendered for
admission as evidence in a court proceeding. Types of investigative
examinations can include applicant testing, counterintelligence screening,
community safety examinations (e.g., post conviction sex offender testing,
domestic violence testing, intoxicated drivers on probation, etc.), as well as
routine specific issue and single issue or multiple-facet diagnostic testing.
Irrelevant Question
A question designed to be emotionally neutral to examinees. Irrelevant
questions are most often placed in the first position of a question list because
an orienting response usually follows the presentation of the first question and
is of no diagnostic value. In CQT formats it is also used after a relevant or
comparison question that has elicited a strong response so as to permit
physiologic arousal levels to return to baseline before presenting another
question. Irrelevant questions are used in nearly every type of PDD test. Also
called norms or neutrals.
